Forgery and fiscal fraud: a new papyrus from Isreal reveals a spectacular criminal case from the Roman empire

The longest Greek papyrus ever found in the Judaean Desert, comprising over 133 lines of text, has now been published for the first time. Initially misclassified as Nabataean, the papyrus remained unnoticed for decades until its rediscovery in 2014.

What the researchers say: "I volunteered to organize documentary papyri in the Israel Antiquities Authority’s scrolls laboratory, and when I saw it, marked ‘Nabataean,’ I exclaimed, ‘It’s Greek to me!’" recalls the lead author of the new study.

Recognizing the document’s extraordinary length, complex style, and potential ties to Roman legal proceedings, he assembled an international team to decipher it. The team determined the document to be prosecutors’ notes for a trial before Roman officials on the eve of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), including a rapidly drafted transcript of the judicial hearing itself. The language is vibrant and direct, with one prosecutor advising another on the strength of various pieces of evidence and strategizing to anticipate objections. "This papyrus is extraordinary because it provides direct insight into trial preparations in this part of the Roman Empire," the researchers said. "This is the best-documented Roman court case from Judaea apart from the trial of Jesus."

The papyrus details a gripping case involving forgery, tax evasion, and the fraudulent sale and manumission of slaves in the Roman provinces of Judaea and Arabia, roughly corresponding to modern Israel and Jordan. The main defendants, Gadalias and Saulos, stand accused of corrupt dealings. Gadalias, the son of a notary and possibly a Roman citizen, had a criminal history involving violence, extortion, counterfeiting, and inciting rebellion. Saulos, his collaborator, orchestrated the fictitious sale and manumission of slaves without paying the requisite Roman taxes. To conceal their activities, the defendants forged documents.

"Forgery and tax fraud carried severe penalties under Roman law, including hard labor or even capital punishment," explained the researchers.

This criminal case unfolded between two major Jewish uprisings against Roman rule: the Jewish Diaspora revolt (115–117 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE). Notably, the text implicates Gadalias and Saulos in rebellious activities during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region (129/130 CE) and names Tineius Rufus, the governor of Judaea when the Bar Kokhba revolt began.

In the wake of prior unrest, Roman authorities likely viewed the defendants with suspicion, connecting their crimes to broader conspiracies against the empire. "Whether they were indeed involved in rebellion remains an open question, but the insinuation speaks to the charged atmosphere of the time," the lead researcher notes. As he points out, the nature of the crime raises questions, as "freeing slaves does not appear to be a profitable business model."

The enslaved individuals’ origins remain unclear, but the case may have involved illicit human trafficking or the Jewish biblical duty to redeem enslaved Jews.

The papyrus offers new insights into Roman law in the Greek-speaking eastern empire, referencing the governor of Judaea's assize tour and compulsory jury service. "This document shows that core Roman institutions documented in Egypt were also implemented throughout the empire," the lead author explained.

The papyrus also showcases the Roman state’s ability to regulate private transactions even in remote regions. Likely originating from a hideout cave in the Judaean Desert during the Bar Kokhba revolt, its careful preservation remains a mystery, and the trial's outcome may have been interrupted by the rebellion.

My take: Fascinating stuff. This might have been about events in 2025 when the trials of a previously convicted criminal stopped because of an outside event—not a rebellion this time but an election. Plus ça change malheureusement!